Помощник флориста( Буканаева Д.С. )

Описание

HUM AN R IG HTS Q UARTER LY
Hum an R ig h ts Q uarte rly 2 2 (2 000) 5 01±5 47 2 000 b y T he Jo hns H opkin s U niv ers ity P re ss
C ult u ra l R ela tiv is m 1
Jo hn J. T ille y*
I. I N TR O DUCTIO N
W e o fte n h ear th at ª m ora lity is r e la tiv e to c u ltu re º o r th at ª rig h t a n d w ro ng
v ary w ith cu ltu ra l norm s.º These are ro ugh fo rm ula tio ns of
c u ltu ra l
r e la tiv is m
,2
a t h eo ry w ith m ulti p le c h arm s, a p pearin g r ig o ro usly s c ie n ti ® c t o
s o m e, fa sh io nab ly p ostm odern to o th ers . N ot s u rp ris in gly , c u ltu ra l re la tiv -
i s m is o n th e u psw in g in m an y d is c ip lin es,3
a n d is s e en b y m an y p eo ple a s
*Jo hn J . T ille y i s a n A sso cia te P ro fe sso r o f P hilo so phy a t I n dia n a U niv ers ity ±P urd ue U niv ers ity
I n dia n ap olis (IU PU I). H is re se arc h a re as a re e th ic al th eo ry a n d p ra ctic al re aso n.
1 . I a m g ra te fu l to R ho da H ow ard , L o uis P ojm an , P au l W arre n a n d, e sp ecia lly , M ic h ael
B urk e f o r h elp fu l c o m men ts . I a m a ls o g ra te fu l t o m y s tu den ts i n P 326, E th ic al T heo ry , f o r
u se fu l q uestio ns a n d d is c u ssio ns.
2 . The te rm in olo gy in th is e ssa y is n ot o ut o f th e o rd in ary , b ut n or is it u niv ers a l. F o r
i n sta n ce, so m e au th ors u se ªe th ic al re la tiv is m º fo r w hat th is artic le calls ªc u lt u ra l
r e la tiv is m ,º re se rv in g th e la tte r te rm fo r th e v ie w th at d iffe re n t c u ltu re s a ccep t d iffe re n t
m ora l prin cip le s. Als o , th e te rm s ªa gen t re la tiv is m ,º ªtr a n sc en den ta lis m ,º ªm ora l
l ib era lis m ,º a n d ª V ic to ria n m ora lity ,º a ll o f w hic h a p pear in th is a rtic le , h ave m ore th an
o ne u se in m ora l p hilo so phy.
3 . Esp ec ia ll y th ose d is c ip lin es c o ncern ed w ith in te rn atio nal h um an r ig h ts .
S ee , e .g . , A li s o n
D undes R en te ln ,
T he U nan sw ere d C halle n ge o f R ela tiv is m a n d th e C onse q uen ces fo r
H um an R ig h ts
, 7 H UM . R TS. Q . 5 14 (1 985); A lis o n D undes R en te ln , R ela tiv is m a n d th e
S earc h fo r H um an R ig h ts
, 9 0 A M. A NTH RO PO LO GIS T 5 6 (1 988); A LIS O N D UND ES R EN TELN ,
I N TER N ATIO NAL H UM AN RIG H TS: U NIV ER SA LIS M V ER SU S RELA TIV IS M (1 990); Terry N ard in ,
T he
P ro ble m o f R ela tiv is m in In te rn atio nal Eth ic s
, 1 8 M IL LEN NIU M 1 49 (1 989); M arth a C .
N ussb au m ,
H um an F u nctio nin g a n d S o cia l Ju stic e: In D efe n se o f A ris to te lia n E sse n tia l-
i s m
, 20 POL. THEO RY 203 , 203±0 4 (1 992) (r e co untin g co nvers a tio ns th at re veal th e
p re vale n ce o f c u ltu ra l re la tiv is m a m ong a cad em ic s); S am G ark aw e,
T he Im pact o f th e
D octr in e o f C ultu ra l R ela tiv is m o n th e A ustr a lia n L e gal S yste m
, 2 E L AW -M URD O CH U NIV .
E LEC . J.L ., Apr. 1995,
a vaila b le in (v is ite d 9 F eb . 2 000); D onald J. P uch ala ,
T he E th ic s o f G lo balis m , 5 R EP . &
P APER S 2 (1 995 ),
a vail a b le in (v is ite d 9 Feb . 2000) (r e co untin g co nfe re n ce even ts th at
r e veal th e p re vale n ce a n d in ¯uen ce o f c u ltu ra l r e la tiv is m ); E lv in H atc h ,
T he G ood S id e
o f R ela tiv is m
, 5 3 J. A NTH RO PO LO GIC A L R ES. 3 71 (1 997). S o m e v alu ab le c o rre ctiv es to th is
t r e n d a re N ussb au m ,
s u pra , a t 2 05±4 6; P uch ala , s u pra , a t 3 ±1 7; R hoda E . H ow ard ,
C ultu ra l A bso lu tis m a n d th e N osta lg ia fo r C om munity , 1 5 H UM . R TS. Q . 3 15 (1 993); R ay

Vol. 2 2 502 HUM AN R IG HTS Q UARTER LY
t h e l a st w оrdi n e th ic al t h eo ry . I n w hat f o llo w s I c h alle n ge t h is s ta te o f a ffa ir s
b y re fu tin g th e c h ie f a rg u m en ts fo r c u ltu ra l re la tiv is m .
I n d oin g th is I w alk s o m e o ft- tr o dden p ath s,4
b ut I a ls o b re ak n ew o nes.
F o r in sta n ce, I ta ke u n usu al p ain s to a d eq uate ly fo rm ula te c u ltu ra l re la tiv -
i s m ,5
a n d I d is tin gu is h it fr o m th e r e la tiv is m o f p re se n t- d ay a n th ro polo gis ts ,
w ith w hic h it is o fte n c o n¯ ate d . A ls o , I a d dre ss n ot o ne o r tw o, b ut e le ven
d iffe re n t a rg u m en ts fo r c u ltu ra l re la tiv is m , m an y o f w hic h c o ntr ib ute to its
p opula rity b ut r e ceiv e s c an t a tte n tio n f r o m i ts c ritic s. T o e lic it p ers p ic u ously
t h e fa ilin gs o f th ese arg u m en ts , I d ep lo y a h ost o f p ertin en t b ut o fte n
n egle c te d d is tin ctio ns. In th e e n d, c u ltu ra l re la tiv is m is s e en fo r w hat it is :
f o r a ll its a llu re a n d p opula rit y , it is in te lle ctu ally d estitu te .
I I. F O RM ULA TIN G C U LT U RA L R ELA TIV IS M
M y ® rs t a im is to p ro duce a n a d eq uate fo rm ula tio n o f c u ltu ra l re la ti v is m .
T his is n ot s o e asy . R ela tiv is ts s ta te th eir v ie w in v ario us w ays, a n d th ose
s ta te m en ts a re n eith er p re cis e n or e q uiv ale n t.6
A ls o , th ere a re tw o w ays in
K ie ly , T hir d W orld is t R ela tiv is m : A N ew F o rm o f Im peria lis m , 2 5 J. C ONTEM P. A SIA 1 59
( 1 995); A nne F . B ayefs k y,
C ult u ra l S o vere ig n ty , R ela tiv is m , a n d In te rn atio nal H um an
R ig h ts : N ew E xcu se s fo r O ld S tr a te gie s
, 9 R ATIO JU RIS 4 2 (1 996).
4 . Crit ic al s tu die s o f c u ltu ra l r e la tiv is m a re n um ero us. U se fu l o nes i n clu de t h e ª c o rre ctiv esº
i n n ote 3 .
S ee a ls o W .T . S TA C E, T HE C ONCEP T O F M ORA LS c h s. 1 ±2 , 1 0 ( 1 937); E lg in W illia m s,
A nth ro polo gy fo r th e C om mon M an , 4 9 A M. A NTH RO PO LO GIS T 8 4 (1 9 47); F ra n k E . H artu ng,
C ultu ra l R ela tiv ity a n d M ora l Ju dgm en ts , 2 1 P HIL . S CI. 1 18 (1 954); P au l F . S ch m id t, S o m e
C ritic is m s o f C ultu ra l R ela tiv is m
, 5 2 J . P HIL . 7 80 ( 1 955); D avid B id ney, T he P hilo so phic al
P re su ppositio ns o f C ultu ra l R ela tiv is m a n d C ultu ra l A bso lu tis m
, in E TH IC S A N D TH E S O CIA L
S CIE N CES 5 1 (L eo W ard e d ., 1 95 9); R IC H ARD B . B RA N DT, E TH IC AL T HEO RY c h . 1 1 (1 9 59); T . L .
M cC lin to ck,
T he A rg u m en t f o r E th ic al R ela tiv is m f r o m t h e D iv ers ity o f M ora ls , 4 7 M ONIS T
5 28 ( 1 963); P AU L W . T AYLO R, P RIN CIP LES O F E TH IC S c h . 2 ( 1 975); W il lia m H . S h aw ,
R ela tiv is m
a n d O bje ctiv ity in E th ic s
, in M ORA LIT Y A N D M ORA L C ONTR O VER SIE S 3 1 (Jo hn A rth ur e d ., 1 981);
F . C . W HIT E, K NO W LED G E A N D R ELA TIV IS M c h s. 4 ±5 (1 983); JE FF R EY S TO UT, E TH IC S A FT ER B ABEL p t. 1
( 1 988); L O UIS P . P OJM AN , E TH IC S: D IS C O VER IN G R IG HT A N D W RO NG c h s. 2 ±3 (2 d e d . 1 995). M y
d is c u ssio n h as b en e® tte d fr o m th ese a u th ors a t m an y p oin ts . A r e la te d n ote : th is a rtic le
w as ® n is h ed in a ll e sse n tia ls in m id -1 997; h en ce, it m akes little u se o f ite m s th at h ave
a p peare d s in ce th en . A m ong th o se ite m s a re th e fo llo w in g, w hic h I r e co m men d h ig h ly :
E liz ab eth M . Z ech en te r,
In t h e N am e o f C ultu re : C ultu ra l R ela tiv is m a n d t h e A buse o f t h e
I n div id ual
, 5 3 J. A NTH RO PO LO GIC A L R ES . 3 19 (1 997); M ic h ae l J. P erry , A re H um an R ig h ts
U niv ers a l? : T he R ela tiv is t C halle n ge a n d R ela te d M atte rs
, 1 9 H UM . R TS. Q . 4 61 (1 997);
M IC H ELE M . M OO DY-A DAM S, F IE L D W ORK IN F AM IL IA R P LA C ES: M ORA LIT Y , C ULT U RE, AN D P HIL O SO PH Y
( 1 997); W illia m M ax K norp p J r .,
W hat R ela tiv is m I s n 't , 7 3 P HIL O SO PH Y 2 77 ( 1 998); J O HN W .
C OO K, M ORA LIT Y A N D C ULT U RA L D IF F ER EN CES (1 999).
5 . One o f m y a im s is to a vo id th e e rro rs lis te d in th e A ppen dix .
6 . Fo r a p rim e e xam ple , s e e J A M ES F . D OW NS, C ULT U RES IN C RIS IS c h . 2 ( 2 d e d . 1 975). D ow ns n ot
o nly fa ils to p in d ow n th e m ora l th eo ry h e in te n ds, b ut a llo w s it to c h an ge fr o m p age to
p age an d to re m ain en ta n gle d w ith n onm ora l o nes. Fo r o th er exam ple s, se e R UTH
B EN ED IC T, PATTER N S OF C ULT U RE 27 8 (1 934); R uth B en ed ic t,
Id eo lo gie s in th e Lig h t of
C om para tiv e D ata
, in A N A NTH RO PO LO GIS T A T W ORK 3 83 ±8 4 (M arg are t M ead e d ., 1 959);
M ELV IL L E J . H ER SK O VIT S, C ULT U RA L R ELA TIV IS M : P ER SP EC TIV ES IN C ULT U RA L P LU RA LIS M 1 4, 1 5, 3 2±3 3, 9 3,
1 01 (F ra n ces H ers k o vits e d ., 1 9 73).

2000 Cult u ra l R ela tiv is m 5 03
w hic h a j u dgm en t m ig h t b e r e la tiv e t o a c u ltu re . F ir s t, i ts t r u th ( o r f a ls e h ood)
m ig h t b e re la tiv e to th e c u ltu re . T hat is , th e ju dgm en t m ig h t b e tr u e in a
r e la tiv e ra th er th an a n o rd in ary , n onre la tiv e w ay. S eco nd, th e ju dgm en t
m ig h t b e tr u e in a n o rd in ary w ay b ut b e r e la ti v e to a c u ltu re th ro ugh a ta cit
r e fe re n ce to th e c u ltu re . In th e ® rs t c ase , th e re la ti v it y o f th e ju dgm en t
d eriv es f r o m t h e r e la tiv ity o f m ora l
t r u th . I n t h e s e co nd, t h e r e la tiv ity d eriv es
f r o m t h e
co nte n t o f t h e j u dgm en t. T he t w o c ase s d iffe r s h arp ly , b ut t h is i s n ot
n otic ed , m uch le ss a p pre cia te d , in th e c la ssic s o urc es fo r re la tiv is m .
D esp ite t h ese d if® cu ltie s, w e c an f o rm ula te a v ie w t h at s tr ik es a b ala n ce
a m ong th e fo llo w in g: p re cis io n, p la u sib ility , s ig n i® can ce a s a m ora l th eo ry ,
a n d fa ith fu ln ess to th e a im s o f le ad in g c u ltu ra l r e la tiv is ts .7
F ir s t so m e te rm in olo gic al p oin ts . W hen ever I sp eak o f o ne o r m ore
p eo ple , th e p eo ple a re
m ora l a gen ts a s w ell a s h um an b ein gs.8
If I s a y th at
s u ch -a n d-s u ch is tr u e o f W este rn c u ltu re , th e W este rn ers a llu ded to a re
m ora l a gen ts . (M an y h um an b ein gs, e .g ., in fa n ts , d o n ot q ualify a s su ch .)
A ls o , th e w оrds ªp eo ple ,º ªa gen ts ,º a n d th eir c o gn ate s re fe r n ot ju st to
a ctu al h um an a gen ts , b ut to re alis tic ally im agin ab le o nes. H ere th e w оrdª re alis tic ally º in dic ate s th at n eith er th e p eo ple n or th eir liv es h ave a n y
g ro ssly fa r- fe tc h ed fe atu re sÐ fo r in sta n ce, fe atu re s th at a re c o ntr a ry to w hat
w e k n ow a b out th e b io lo gic al n atu re o f h um an s. T he sa m e g o es fo r th e
w оrdª c u ltu re s.º If I sa y th at su ch -a n d-s u ch is c o n® ned to a sm all se t o f
c u ltu re s, I m ean t h at s u ch -a n d-s u ch i s c o n® ned t o a s m all s e t o f t h e c u ltu re s
t h at a re a ctu al o r r e alis tic ally im agin ab le .9
7
. I h ave i n m in d B EN ED IC T, s u pra n ote 6 ; R uth B en ed ic t, A nth ro polo gy a n d t h e A bnorm al , 1 0
J . G EN . P SY C H O L. 5 9 (1 934 ); H ER SK O VIT S,
s u pra n ote 6 ; M ELV IL LE J. H ER SK O VIT S, M AN A N D H IS
W ORKS (1 948); a n d W IL L IA M G RA H AM S U M NER , F O LK W AYS (1 906). (S o m e w ould a d d E d w ard
W este rm arc k to th is lis t, b ut h e is p ro perly c la ssi® ed a s a m ora l su bje ctiv is t, n ot a s a
c u ltu ra l re la tiv is t.) B en ed ic t' s w ork re ¯ ects th e in ¯ u en ce o f O sw ald Sp en gle r, w ho
d efe n ds c u ltu ra l r e la tiv is m in 1 O SW ALD S PEN GLE R , T HE D EC LIN E O F T H E W EST 3 45±4 6 (C harle s
F . A tk in so n t r a n s., 1 932) ( r e v. e d . 1 922). A l e sse r k n ow n r e la tiv is t, w ell w orth c o nsu lt in g,
i s C LA REN CE E. A YR ES, H OLIE R T HAN T HO U: T HE W AY O F TH E R IG HTEO US (1 929). A dditio nal
e n dors e m en ts o f c u ltu ra l r e la tiv is m a re e asy t o ® nd.
S ee , e .g . , A LLEN W HEELIS , T HE Q UEST F O R
I D EN TIT Y 9 4±9 6 (1 958); E DM UND R . L EA C H , A R UNAW AY W ORLD ? 4 8 (1 968 ); P au l P ic co ne,
In tr o ductio n , 1 06 T ELO S 8 ( 1 996). F o r r e cen t d efe n se s ( a s o ppose d t o m ere e n dors e m en ts )
o f re la tiv is m , s e e R EN TEL N ,
s u pra n ote 3 , c h . 3 ; C liffo rd G eertz , A nti A nti- R ela tiv is m , 8 6
A M. A NTH RO PO LO GIS T 2 63 ( 1 9 84 ). A ctu ally , ª d efe n se sº i s n ot q uite a ccu ra te . G eertz 's a im i s
n ot t o s u pport r e la tiv is m , b ut t o p oin t o ut f a u lts a n d e xcesse s o f a n ti- re la tiv is ts . R en te ln 's
c h ie f aim is to ªc o rre ct th e caric atu re d pic tu re of re la tiv is m º an d to unco ver th e
i m plic atio ns o f r e la tiv is m f o r h um an r ig h ts i s su es. R EN TELN ,
s u pra n ote 3 , c h . 3 . S o i t i s n ot
s u rp ris in g th at n eith er a u th or a d ds to th e s to ck o f a rg u m en ts u se d b y S u m ner, B en ed ic t,
a n d H ers k o vits . A valu ab le h is to ry o f cu ltu ra l re la tiv is m is E LV IN H ATC H , C ULT U RE AN D
M ORA LIT Y : T HE R ELA TIV IT Y O F V ALU ES IN A NTH RO PO LO GY (1 983).
8 . The poin t th at th ey are hum an bein gs is not su per¯ uous. So m e philo so phers use
ª p eo ple º in te rc h an geab ly w ith ªra tio nal agen ts ,º im ply in g th at nonhum an ra tio nal
a gen ts w ould c o unt a s p eo ple . T his a rtic le d oes n ot u se ª p eo ple º th is b ro ad ly .
9 . The c o ncep t o f a n onexis te n t y e t re alis tic ally im agin ab le c u ltu re (o r p ers o n), a lth o ugh
f u zzy, is n ot to o fu zzy to b e u se fu l. H is to ry p ro vid es m an y (th ough n ot th e o nly )
e xam ple s o f s u ch c u ltu re s, ju st a s s c ie n ce ® ctio n p ro vid es m an y e xam ple s o f ª c u ltu re sº

Vol. 2 2 504 HUM AN R IG HTS Q UARTER LY
N ext, f o r s im plic ity , l e t u s i n te rp re t c u ltu ra l r e la ti v is m s o t h at i t p erta in s,
n ot to a ll m ora l s ta te m en ts , b ut to a n im porta n t s e t o f th em , d is tin gu is h ab le
i n p art b y th eir g ra m matic al fo rm . L et u s v ie w it a s a th esis a b out
m ora l
j u dgm en ts
, r e str ic tin g th e la tte r te rm to s ta te m en ts o f th e fo rm , ª X is (is n o t)
m ora lly r ig h t (p rim a fa cie r ig h t, w ro ng, g o od, p re fe ra b le to
Y, e tc .), º w here
X is an actio n, p ra ctic e, o r in stitu tio n. Let u s fu rth er re str ic t th e te rm 's
m ean in g b y e xclu din g th e fo llo w in g: sta te m en ts th at a re ta u to lo go us o r
c o ntr a d ic to ry ; sta te m en ts th at exp re ssly re veal w heth er th e obje ct of
e valu atio n a cco rd s w ith t h e n orm s ( h ab its , e tc .) o f a c u ltu re ; a n d s ta te m en ts
t h at c o n ta in i n dexic als o r e xp lic it r e fe re n ces t o p artic u la r p eo ple , g ro ups, o r
p la ces. S ta te m en ts
a th ro ugh e a re m ora l ju dgm en ts ; f th ro ugh k a re n ot. 1
0
a . Cap ita l P unis h m en t is r ig h t.
b . Kil li n g a n im als is n ot g o od.
c . Ly in g is p rim a fa c ie w ro ng.
d . Adopti o n is m ora lly p re fe ra b le to a b ortio n.
e . Payin g o ne's d eb ts is o blig ato ry .
f . Oba's in te n tio ns a re n oble .
g . Yo u o ugh t to k ee p y o ur p ro m is e .
h . Adri is v ir tu ou s.
i . Wro ng a c ts a re w ro ng.
j . The cu sto m s of th e H opi are m ora lly su perio r to th ose of th e
Y an om am !.
k . Acts th at a cco rd w ith th e n orm s o f th e a g en t's c u ltu re a re rig h t.
I e m phasiz e th at o nly fo r s im plic ity d o I in te rp re t c u ltu ra l r e la tiv is m s o
t h at it fa ils to c o ncern
f th ro ugh k. M ost re la tiv is ts in te n d th eir th esis to
p erta in to m an y su ch sta te m en ts . B ut w e c an a vo id m an y c o m plic atio ns,
a n d d o s o w ith out d im in is h in g th e p la u sib ility o f c u ltu ra l re la tiv is m , if w e
l e ave s u ch s ta te m en ts a sid e.
A s a f u rth er p re lim in ary , l e t's s a y t h at a m ora l j u dgm en t h as u nquali® ed
th at fa il to q ualify . O ne re aso n fo r exte n din g ªc u ltu re sº to re alis tic ally im agin ab le
c u ltu re s, n ot ju st to a ctu al o nes, is th at it e n ab le s u s to a vo id E rro r 6 in th e A ppen dix .
A nyo ne o ut to d eta il s o m e o f th e c en tr a l fe atu re s o f re alis tic ally im agin ab le c u ltu re s o r
p ers o ns w ould p ro ® t fr o m N ussb au m ,
s u pra n ote 3 , a t 2 14±2 3.
1 0. Thre e co m men ts : Fir s t, in th is artic le ªrig h t, º ªw ro ng,º etc ., m ean ªm ora lly rig h t,º
ª m ora lly w ro ng,º e tc . S eco nd, s o m e re m ark s p ertin en t to s ta te m en ts
i a n d j a re in th e
A ppen dix , a n d m uch i s s a id a b ou t
k i n S ectio n I V . T hir d , º X i s p rim a f a cie w ro n gº m ean s
t h e s a m e a s ª o th er th in gs b ein g e q ual,
X is w ro ng.º

2000 Cult u ra l R ela tiv is m 5 05
v alid ity , o r th at it 's
ju st p la in v alid , if a n d o nly if it h as th ese fe atu re s: ® rs t, it
i s t r u e; a n d s e co nd, n eith er i ts t r u th n or i ts c o n te n t i s r e la tiv iz ed t o a s p eci® c
p ers o n o r g ro up . If ª ste alin g is w ro ngº is ju st p la in v alid , th en it's tr u e th at
s te alin g is w ro ng, a n d w e n ee d n ot q ualify th is b y a d din g, ª th at is , tr u e
re la tiv e to c u ltu re C (g ro up D, p ers o n E). º A ls o , th e ju dgm en t m akes n o
c o vert re fe re n ce to a p artic u la r g ro up o r p ers o n. F o r e xam ple , it is n eith er
e q uiv ale n t to , n or e llip tic al fo r, ª ste alin g is w ro ng w hen d one b y th ose o f
c u ltu re
C.º 1
1
W e a ls o c an s p eak o f j u dgm en ts t h at a re
v ali d f o r X , w here X i s a p ers o n
o r g ro up. A m ora l ju dgm en t is v alid fo r
X ju st in c ase o ne o f tw o th in gs
o bta in s: e ith er th e ju dgm en t is ju st p la in v alid , o r e ls e it h as th ese fe atu re s:
i t is tr u e, a n d a lth ough its tr u th o r its c o nte n t is tie d to a sp eci® c se t o f
p eo ple ,
X is w ith in th at se t a n d th us u nab le to e vad e th e ju dgm en t.1
2
If
ª ly in g is w ro ngº is v alid fo r E u ro pean s, n o E u ro pean c an sid este p it b y
s a yin g, ª b ut t h at j u dgm en t i s s h orth an d f o r ly in g i s w ro ng w hen
A fr ic an s d o
i t,' º o r ª b ut o nly r e la tiv e t o
A sia n s is i t t r u e t h at l y in g i s w ro ng.º I n s h ort, t h e
j u d gm en t p erta in s to th efts b y E u ro pean s, a n d is tr u e fo r E u ro pean s. N o
E u ro pean c an b ru sh it a sid e.
A ju dgm en t is
u niv ers a lly v alid ju st in c ase it is v alid fo r e very o ne. It is
lo cally v alid ju st in c ase it is v alid fo r so m e, b ut n ot a ll, c u lt u re s. It is
c u ltu ra lly re la tiv e ju st in c ase it h as fe atu re s th at e n su re th at it 's a t b est
l o cally v alid , n ever u niv ers a lly s o .
W e n ow c an fo rm ula te c u ltu ra l re la tiv is m , fo llo w ed b y its c h ie f riv al:
· Cultu ra l R ela tiv is m : A lth ough fo r e very c u ltu re so m e m ora l ju dg-
m en ts a re v alid , n o m ora l j u dgm en t i s u niv ers a lly v ali d . E very m ora l
j u dgm en t is c u ltu ra lly re la tiv e.1
3
· Univ ers a lis m : S o m e m ora l ju d gm en ts a re u niv ers a ll y v alid .
11. This is n ot th e o nly w ay fo r ª ste alin g is w ro ngº to m ake a c o vert r e fe re n ce (a s I u se th at
t e rm ) to
C. It w ould d o s o if ª w ro ngº w ere a r e la tio nal te rm (lik e ª ta llº ) a n d C w ere th e
r e le van t re fe re n ce c la ss.
1 2. Tw o r e m ark s: ® rs t, I a m a ssu m in g th at a m ora l ju dgm en t is v alid fo r g ro up
X o nly if it is
v alid f o r e ach m em ber o f
X. S eco nd, a s m y w оrdin g i n dic ate s, I a m d elib era te ly i g n orin g
t h e p ossib ility th at s o m e m ora l ju dgm en ts a re r e la tiv e to g ro up
X , b ut n ot to g ro up Y, in
t h eir tr u th , a n d to
Y , b ut n ot to X, in th eir c o nte n t. T his v ie w la cks p ro ponen ts , n ot to
m en tio n p la u sib ility .
1 3. Giv en th e m ean in g o f ªc u ltu ra lly re la tiv e,º so m e b ra n ds o f re la tiv is m fa ce a c u rio us
p ro ble m . T hey a sse rt t h at s o m e m ora l j u dgm en ts a re v alid f o r
n o o ne . B ut i f ª X i s w ro ngº
i s v alid f o r n o o ne, i t s e em s t o f o llo w t h at ª
X i s n ot w ro ngº i s v alid f o r e very o ne, i n w hic h
c ase c u ltu ra l r e la tiv is m i s f a ls e . H avin g m en tio ned t h is p ro ble m , I w ill p ut i t a sid e, e xcep t
t o s a y t h at t h e r e la tiv is ts w ho f a ce i t a re n ot a lo ne. A v aria tio n o f i t p la gu es
e rro r t h eo rie s
o f m ora l ju dgm en t. (F o r s u ch a th eo ry , s e e J.L . M ACKIE , E TH IC S: IN VEN TIN G R IG HT A N D W RO NG
( 1 977).) If w e a gre e w ith e rro r th eo ris ts th at a ll m ora l ju dgm en ts , in clu din g ª ste alin g is
w ro ng,º a re f a ls e , w e s e em t o i m ply t h at ª ste alin g i s n ot w ro ngº i s t r u e, i n w hic h c ase n ot
a ll m ora l ju dgm en ts are fa ls e . Fo r m ore on th is pro ble m an d th e pro sp ects fo r
o verc o m in g it, s e e Jo nath an H arris o n,
M ackie 's M ora l S cep tic is m , 5 7 P HIL . 1 73 (1 98 2).

Vol. 2 2 506 HUM AN R IG HTS Q UARTER LY
A lth ough m ost o f th is a rtic le c o ncern s c u ltu ra l re la tiv is m , so m e o f it
c o ncern s
a gen t r e la ti v is m a n d ap pra is e r r e la tiv is m , w hic h a re s ta te d b elo w .
T horo ugh ness re q u ir e s th at w e ad dre ss th ese vie w s, becau se cu ltu ra l
r e la tiv is ts , i n clu din g S u m ner, B en ed ic t, a n d H ers k o vits , o fte n s a y t h in gs t h at
s u ggest th em .1
4
B ut I h esita te to a ttr ib ute e ith er v ie w to th ose a u th ors . T his
i s b eca u se b oth v ie w s a re g ro ssly im pla u sib le . I sh ow th is in th e fo urth
s e ctio n o f th is a rtic le ; in th e ® fth I p ro ceed to m y m ain to pic : a rg u m en ts fo r
c u ltu ra l re la tiv is m .
· Agen t R ela tiv is m : M ora l ju dgm en ts th at p ositiv ely asse ss an ac-
t io nÐ fo r in sta n ce, ªth at w as m ora lly go od,º an d ªit w ould be
m ora lly rig h t fo r C la ir e to a ssis t A lp hºÐ are tr u e if a n d o nly if th e
a ctio n acco rd s w ith th e cu ltu ra l norm s (i.e ., so cia ll y ap pro ved
h ab its ) o f th e a gen t w ho p erfo rm s th e a cti o n. B y th e sa m e to ken ,
m ora l j u dgm en ts t h at n egativ ely a sse ss a n a ctio n a re t r u e i f a n d o nly
i f th e a ctio n c o n¯ ic ts w ith th e c u ltu ra l n orm s o f th e r e le van t a gen t.
· Appra is e r R ela tiv is m : If a p ers o n m akes a p ositiv e m ora l ju dgm en t
a b out a n a cti o n o r a n a ctio n-ty p eÐ fo r in sta n ce, b y a sse rtin g ª th at
w as m ora lly r ig h tº o r ª c an nib alis m i s m ora lly O KºÐ her j u dgm en t i s
t r u e if a n d o nly if th e a ctio n a cco rd s w ith th e n orm s o f h er c u ltu re .
I f sh e m akes a nega tiv e m ora l ju dgm en t ab out th e acti o n, her
j u dgm en t is tr u e if a n d o nly if th e a ctio n c o n¯ ic ts w ith th e n orm s o f
h er c u ltu re .
I II. C LA RIF Y IN G R EM ARKS
T he vie w s to be dis c u sse d re q uir e eig h t fu rth er co m men ts . Fir s t, m y
f o rm ula tio n o f c u ltu ra l r e la tiv is m c o nta in s th e w оrdª v alid ,º th e e xp li c ati o n
o f w hic h co nta in s th e w оrdªtr u e.º Perh ap s so m e w ill fr o w n at th is ,
m ain ta in in g th at
tr u th is a d ate d a n d s ti¯ in g c o nce p t. B ut s u ch fr o w ns a re
h ard t o t a ke s e rio usly . T o a sse rt t h at t r u th i s a d ate d c o ncep t i s t o p ut f o rw ard
a s
tr u e t h e s ta te m en t, ª tr u th i s a d ate d c o ncep t. º T hose w ho t h in k o th erw is e
a re lo ad in g th e w оrdªtr u eº w ith m ore m ean in g th an it a ctu all y h as. To
a sse rt a p ro positio n i s t o a d van ce i t a s t r u e; s o u nle ss w e a re p re p are d t o q uit
m akin g a sse rtio ns, w e s h ould n ot fr o w n o n th e n otio n o f tr u th . P erh ap s w e
s h ould fr o w n o n c erta in
th eo rie s o f tr u th , b ut th at is a n oth er p oin t.
1 4. SU M NER , s u pra n ote 7 , § § 3 1, 6 5, 4 39; H ER SK O VIT S, s u pra n ote 6 , a t 1 01; B en ed ic t, s u pra
n ote 7 , a t 7 3. T he te rm s ª a gen t re la tiv is m º a n d ª a p pra is e r re la tiv is m ,º b y th e w ay, a re
b orro w ed fr o m D avid L yo ns,
E th ic al R ela tiv is m a n d th e P ro ble m o f In co here n ce , 8 6
E TH IC S 1 07 (1 976). (L yo ns u se s th e te rm s ªa gen t' s -g ro up re la tiv is m º a n d ªa p pra is e r's -
g ro up re la tiv is m .º )

2000 Cult u ra l R ela tiv is m 5 07
S eco nd, th ro ugh out m ost o f th is a rtic le I s p eak a s if u niv ers a lis m w ere
t h e o nly a lte rn ativ e to c u ltu ra l re la tiv is m . T his is p artly fo r sim plic ity a n d
p artly becau se th e deb ate over cu ltu ra l re la ti v is m is m ain ly betw een
c u ltu ra l r e la tiv is ts a n d u niv ers a lis ts . It is n ot b ecau se c u ltu ra l r e la tiv is m a n d
u niv ers a lis m a re th e o nly p ossib ilitie s. O ne w ay to o ppose c u ltu ra l r e la tiv -
i s m w ith out b ein g a u niv ers a lis t is to d efe n d
m ora l n ih ilis m , th e v ie w th at
e very m ora l s ta te m en t is e ith er fa ls e o r m ean in gle ss a n d h en ce v alid fo r n o
o ne.1
5
T hir d , c u ltu ra l r e la tiv is m i s n ot a d van ced b y i ts p ro ponen ts a s a
re la tiv e
tr u th . T heir v ie w is n ot th at c u ltu ra l r e la tiv is m is tr u e r e la ti v e to a p artic u la r
g ro up, b ut th at c u ltu ra l r e la tiv is m is tr u e, p erio d.1
6
W e s h ould r e ad c u ltu ra l
r e la tiv is m w ith th is in m in d, a n d th us d is tin gu is h it fr o m m ore g lo bal fo rm s
o f re la tiv is m th at d o n ot e xem pt th e ju dgm en t, ª e very m ora l ju dgm en t is
c u ltu ra lly re la tiv e ,º fr o m b ein g tr u e in o nly a re la tiv e w ay. H ow ever, w e
c an not ig n ore th ese oth er fo rm s of re la tiv is m . U nfo rtu nate ly , cu ltu ra l
r e la tiv is ts s o m etim es u se o ne o f th em w hen a rg u in g th eir c ase . T hey in vo ke
to ta l r e la tiv is m , th e v ie w th at e very s ta te m en t is tr u e o r fa ls e r e la tiv e to o ne
o f a m yria d of in co m men su ra b le , but eq ually ra tio nal, fr a m ew ork s of
b elie f.1
7
I s a y ª u nfo rtu nate ly º b ecau se th e r e su lt in g a rg u m en t fa ils d is m all y .
W e w ill e n co un te r it in a la te r s e ctio n.
F o urth , w e m ust s h arp ly d is tin gu is h th e th ese s in th e p re vio us s e cti o n
f r o m t h e r e la tiv is m o f p re se n t- d ay a n th ro polo gis ts . E arly i n t h is c en tu ry s u ch
a d is tin ctio n w ould h ave b een u nnecessa ry , b ut n ow th in gs a re d iff e re n t.
W hen a n th ro polo gis ts sp eak o f ª c u ltu ra l re la tiv is m º th ey se ld om h ave in
m in d a n
eth ic al v ie w .1
8
T hey u su ally m ean o ne o f th e fo llo w in g:1
9
1 5. A p ris tin e exam ple o f m ora l n ih ilis m is th e em otiv e th eo ry d efe n ded b y A .J. A YER ,
L AN GUAG E, T RU TH A N D L O GIC c h . 6 (2 d e d . 1 946).
1 6. This is not only th e sta n dard w ay of in te rp re tin g cu ltu ra l re la tiv is m , but th e only
c h arita b le w ay. It a ls o is b orn e o ut b y th e u nquali® ed w ay in w hic h c u ltu ra l re la tiv is ts
s ta te t h eir t h esis .
S ee , e .g . , S UM NER , s u pra n ote 7 , § § 3 1, 4 2, 6 5, 4 39, 5 72; H ER SK O VIT S, s u pra
n ote 6 , a t 1 01; B en ed ic t, s u pra n ote 7 , a t 7 3. A ls o r e le van t a re R EN TELN , s u pra n ote 3 , a t
6 8±6 9; S ch m id t,
s u pra n o te 4 , a t 7 81 ±8 2.
1 7. Fo r e xam ple , S u m ner, B en ed ic t, a n d H ers k o vits s e em to d o th is a t tim es. (I s a y ª se em º
b ecau se th ey a re n ot e n tir e ly c le ar a b out th e th esis th ey in te n d.)
S ee S U M NER , s u pra n ote
7 , § 2 32; B EN ED IC T,
s u pra n ote 6 , a t 2 ; H ER SK O VIT S, s u pra n ote 6 , a t 1 5.
1 8. And w hen t h ey d o h ave s u ch a v ie w i n m in d, w e u su ally ® n d t h em r e je ctin g i t.
S ee , e .g . ,
H ATC H ,
s u pra note 7, ch s. 5, 7; H . RUSSEL L BER N ARD , RESEA RC H M ET H O DS IN C ULT U RA L
A NTH RO PO LO GY 1 17 (1 988); H en ry H . B agis h ,
C onfe ssio ns o f a F o rm er C ultu ra l R ela ti v is t ,
in A NTH RO PO LO GY 9 0/9 1, a t 3 0 (E lv io A ngelo ni e d ., 1 990); S TA N LEY JE Y A RA JA T AM BIA H , M AG IC ,
S CIE N CE, R ELIG IO N, AN D TH E S CO PE O F R ATIO NALIT Y 1 28 ±2 9 (1 990); Ja n in e H itc h en s,
C ritic al
I m plic atio ns o f F ra n z B oas' T heo ry a n d M eth odolo gy
, 1 9 D IA LEC TIC AL A NTH RO PO LO GY 2 37,
2 48±4 9 (1 994); C ONRA D P HIL LIP K OTTA K, A NTH RO PO LO GY: T HE E XPLO RA TIO N O F H UM AN D IV ER SIT Y
4 5±4 6 (6 th ed . 1994); Ja m es P. Sp ra d le y & D avid W . M cC urd y,
C ultu re an d th e
C onte m pora ry W orld
, in C ONFO RM IT Y AN D C ONFL IC T 8 (Ja m es P . Sp ra d le y & D avid W .
M cC urd y e d s., 9 th e d . 1 9 97). A s e co nd p oin t: w hen c o nte m pora ry a n th ro polo gis ts write
a b out ª c u ltu ra l r e la tiv is m ,º t h ey s o m etim es c h oose w оrds t h at s u ggest o ne o f t h e t h eo rie s

Vol. 2 2 508 HUM AN R IG HTS Q UARTER LY
· Meth odolo gic al C onte xtu alis m : E very c u sto m , b eli e f, o r a ctio n m ust
b e s tu die d i n t h e c o nte xt o f t h e c u ltu re i n w hic h i t o ccu rs . T hat i s , i t
m ust b e s tu die d in lig h t o f th e h is to ry a n d tr a d itio ns, p ro ble m s a n d
o pportu nitie s, a n d t o ta l b ody o f c u sto m s o f t h e s o cie ty i n w hic h i t i s
f o und. O th erw is e , w e w ill g ain little in sig h t in to o th er c u lt u re s.
· Meth odolo gic al N eu tr a lis m : To u nders ta n d o th er cu ltu re s, so cia l
s c ie n tis ts m ust su ppre ss th eir m ora l co n vic tio ns w hen stu dyin g
t h ose c u lt u re s. A lth ough th ey c an not e n tir e ly fr e e th em se lv es fr o m
s u ch c o nvic ti o ns, th ey s h ould tr y to p ut th e c o nvic tio ns a sid e in th e
i n te re st o f a ccu ra te re se arc h .
T hese v ie w s e n ta il n one o f th e fo rm s o f re la tiv is m d e® ned e arlie r. 2
0
F o r
e xam ple , t h ey d o n ot e n ta il c u ltu ra l r e la tiv is m , f o r t h ey i m ply n oth in g a b out
m ora l v alid ity . T he g e n era l le sso n h ere is th at a lth ough c u ltu ra l re la tiv is m
h as a d here n ts in m an y a cad em ic d is c ip lin es, it is n ot th e
go sp el in a n y o f
t h ose d is c ip lin es, in clu din g a n th ro polo gy. T he v ie w th at re la tiv is m is a n
a xio m o f a n th ro polo gy is e ith er fa ls e o r ® fty y ears o ut o f d ate .2
1
F ifth , i f t h e d iffe re n ce b etw een a p pra is e r r e la tiv is m a n d a gen t r e la tiv is m
i s n ot c le ar, o r if it is n ot c le ar ju st h ow s h arp th at d iff e re n ce is , a n e xam ple
w ill h elp . S u ppose th e n orm s o f R avi's c u ltu re d iff e r fr o m th ose o f R uth 's .
S u ppose a ls o th at R uth is d oin g s o m eth in g th at a cco rd s w ith th e n orm s o f
h er c u ltu re b ut n ot w ith th ose o f R avi's . R avi sta te s th at R uth 's d eed is
w ro ng. A cco rd in g to a p pra is e r re la tiv is m , R avi's s ta te m en t is tr u e b ecau se
in S ectio n II. B ut w hen th eir w оrds a re re ad in c o nte xt, th e v ie w in q uestio n a lm ost
a lw ays t u rn s o ut t o b e o ne o f t h o se b elo w . T his p oin t m ay p erta in t o a f e w o f t h e a u th ors
i n n ote 1 9.
1 9. These p ositio ns a re n ot n ew in a n th ro polo gy (B en ed ic t a n d H ers k o vits h eld b oth ), n or is
t h e h ab it o f c allin g th em ª c u ltu ra l r e la tiv is m .º W hat is n ew Ð i.e ., d iffe re n t fr o m th e ® rs t
h alf o f th e cen tu ry Ð is th e h ab it o f re str ic tin g th at te rm to th ese p ositio ns, th ere b y
e xclu din g t h e m ora l t h eo rie s i n S ectio n I I. F o r t h e ® rs t o f t h e t w o p ositio ns, s e e R IC H LEY H .
C RA PO , C ULT U RA L A NTH RO PO LO GY 1 7, 3 8±3 9 (3 d e d . 1 993); M IC H AEL C . H OW ARD , C ONTEM PO RA RY
C ULT U RA L A NTH RO PO LO GY 5 ±6 , 1 4 ( 4 th e d . 1 993); S ER EN A N AN DA, C ULT U RA L A NTH RO PO LO GY 1 7, 1 9
( 5 th e d . 1 994); F . A lla n H an so n,
R acis m a n d R ela tiv is m , 1 0 T IK KU N 6 3, 6 6 ( 1 995). F o r t h e
s e co nd p ositio n, s e e H ATC H ,
s u pra n ote 7 , a t 1 1; B agis h , s u pra n ote 1 8, a t 3 3±3 4; M ARV IN
H ARRIS , C ULT U RA L A NTH RO PO LO GY 10±1 1 (3 d ed . 1991); D avid H .P . M ayb ury -L ew is ,
A
S p ecia l S o rt o f P le ad in g: A nth ro p olo gy a t th e S erv ic e o f E th nic G ro ups
, in T ALK IN G A BO UT
P EO PLE: R EA D IN G S IN C ONTEM PO RA RY C ULT U RA L A NTH RO PO LO GY 1 6, 1 7 (W illia m A . H avila n d &
R obert J. G оrdon e d s., 2 d e d . 1 996).
2 0. This i s e m phasiz ed b y s o m e o f t h e s o cia l s c ie n tis ts w ho a c cep t t h ese v ie w s. E xam ple s a re
H ATC H ,
s u pra n ote 7 , a t 1 1; H an so n, s u pra n ote 1 9; H OW ARD , s u pra n ote 1 9; M ayb ury -
L ew is ,
s u pra n ote 1 9.
2 1. This d ate d v ie w is c o m mon a m ong p hilo so phers ; u nfo rtu nate ly , it o fte n b lin ds th em to
s o m e w orth w hile lite ra tu re . I have in m in d th e m an y use fu l critic is m s of cu ltu ra l
r e la tiv is m th at h ave b een w ritte n b y a n th ro polo gis ts . T hre e e xam ple s: H ATC H ,
s u pra n ote
7 , c h s. 4 ±5 ; B id ney,
s u pra n ote 4 ; D avid B id ney, T he C oncep t o f V alu e in M odern
A nth ro polo gy
, in A NTH RO PO LO GY T ODAY 6 82 (A . L . K ro eb er e d ., 1 953).

2000 Cult u ra l R ela tiv is m 5 09
t h e d eed h e is evalu ati n g co n¯ ic ts w ith th e n orm s o f h is cu ltu re . B ut
a cco rd in g to a gen t re la ti v is m , R avi's s ta te m en t is fa ls e b ecau se th e e valu -
a te d d eed a cco rd s w ith th e n orm s o f th e a gen t's c u ltu re , th e a gen t b ein g
R uth .
S ix th , a gen t r e la tiv is m a n d a p pra is e r r e la tiv is m d iffe r i n m an y w ays f r o m
c u ltu ra l re la tiv is m . F o r o ne th in g, e ach c o ncern s a c la ss o f s ta te m en ts th at
d iffe rs fr o m (b u t o verla p s w ith ) th e c la ss w e h ave d ubbed ªm ora l ju dg-
m en ts .º (F o r in sta n ce, unlik e cu ltu ra l re la tiv is m , agen t re la tiv is m an d
a p pra is e r re la tiv is m each exte n d to th e sta te m en t, ªth at act is rig h t.º )
F u rth er, e ach is m ore s p eci® c th an c u ltu ra l r e la tiv is m a b out s e vera l th in gs,
i n clu din g th e a sp ect o f c u ltu re to w hic h m ora lity is c o n necte d a n d th e
n atu re o f th e c o nnectio n. E ach a sse rts a c o nnectio n b etw een m ora lity a n d
n orm s a n d m ain ta in s th at th e c o nnectio n is a s tig h t a s p ossib le .
T he d iffe re n ce ju st m en tio ned h as im porta n t c o nse q uen ces. S u ppose
t h at C la ir e b uys s o m e v eal, h er d eed a gre ein g b oth w ith th e n orm s o f h er
c u ltu re a n d w ith th ose o f C hen 's . L ate r, C la ir e a n d C hen c o nclu de th at
C la ir e 's deed w as w ro ng. (P erh ap s th ey have beco m e an im al rig h ts
a ctiv is ts .) A gen t re la tiv is m a n d a p pra is e r re la tiv is m e ach im ply th at C la ir e
a n d C hen h ave d ra w n f a ls e c o nclu sio ns. B ut c u ltu ra l r e la tiv is m , a s w e h ave
d e® ned i t, h as n o s u ch i m plic atio n. C ultu ra l r e la tiv is m d oes n ot e xclu de t h e
p o ssib ility th at e ven th ough b uyin g v eal a cco rd s w ith th e n orm s o f C la ir e 's
c u ltu re , ª b uyin g v eal is w ro ngº is v alid fo r h er c u ltu re , w here as ª b uyin g
v eal is rig h tº is in valid .
A k ey p oin t h ere i s t h at c u ltu ra l r e la tiv is m d oes n ot a sse rt a n a gre em en t
b etw een v alid m ora l ju dgm en ts a n d n orm s. P erh ap s ª e atin g v eal is w ro ngº
i s v alid f o r a c u ltu re , e ven t h ough e atin g v eal a cco rd s w ith t h e n orm s o f t h e
c u ltu re . A noth er k ey p oin t i s t h at c u ltu ra l r e la tiv is m i m plie s n o
te st f o r m ora l
v alid ity . T hat i s , i t d o es n ot t e ll u s h ow t o c h ec k m ora l j u dgm en ts f o r v ali d ity
o r h ow to id en tify th e c u ltu re s fo r w hic h th e ju dgm en ts a re v alid .2
2
M ost
r e la tiv is ts w ill ¯ esh o ut th eir th esis to sa y th at th e sc o pe o f an y m ora l
j u d gm en t's v alid ity m atc h es th e s c o pe o f v ario us n orm s, m ean in g th at th e
j u d gm en t i s v alid o nly f o r c u ltu re s t h at s h are t h ose n orm s. A nd m ost w ill s a y
t h at it 's th e agre em en t o f th e ju dgm en t w it h th e n orm s th at m akes th e
j u d gm en t valid . B ut th is is b esid e th e p oin t. T he p oin t is th at cu lt u ra l
r e la tiv is m
sim plic ite r is s im ply a m eta eth ic al th esis th at lim its th e s c o pe o f
e ach m ora l ju dgm en t's v alid ity . It is n ot a n orm ativ e th esis th at h elp s u s
i d en tify v alid m ora l ju dgm en ts o r th eir c o rre sp ondin g c u ltu re s.2
3
(A s s o m e
22. See , e .g . , A yre s, s u pra n o te 7 ; W HEELIS , s u pra n ote 7 .
2 3. A
m eta eth ic al th eo ry a im s to illu m in ate o ne o r m ore fe atu re s o f m ora l la n gu age o r
t h ough t, p erh ap s even to p ro vid e a co m pre h en siv e acco unt o f su ch la n gu age an d
t h ough t. A
norm ativ e eth ic al th eo ry fu rn is h es m ora l gu id an ce b y, sa y, p ro vid in g a
m eth od fo r id en tify in g v a lid m ora l ju dgm en ts . In s a yin g th at c u ltu ra l r e la tiv is m is s tr ic tly

Vol. 2 2 510 HUM AN R IG HTS Q UARTER LY
m ig h t p ut i t, c u ltu ra l r e la tiv is m i s m ere ly a
sc h em a f o r n orm ativ e t h eo rie s o f
a p artic u la r ty p e.) T his d oes n ot m ake th e th esis tr iv ia l. F o r o ne th in g, if
c u ltu ra l re la tiv is m is tr u e m an y n orm ativ e th eo rie s sta n d re fu te d , fo r th ey
p re su ppose u niv ers a lis m .
S even th , u niv ers a lis m , lik e c u ltu ra l r e la tiv is m , is s tr ic tly m eta eth ic al. It
d oes n o t te ll u s h ow to id en tify u niv ers a lly valid m ora l ju dgm en ts . A t
v ario us p oin ts I s p eak o f th is o r th at ª v ers io n º o f u niv ers a lis m , b y w hic h I
m ean th e c o m bin atio n o f u niv ers a lis m e ith er w ith a b elie f th at th is o r th at
m ora l ju d gm en t is u niv ers a lly v alid , o r w ith a p ro posa l a b out h ow to c h eck
m ora l j u dgm en ts f o r v alid ity .2
4
B ut u niv ers a lis m
sim plic ite r d iffe rs f r o m a ll o f
t h ese ª v ers io ns.º F ro m th e b are fa ct th at a p ers o n is a u niv ers a lis t w e c an
i n fe r n oth in g a b out th e c o nte n t o f h is m ora l b elie fs Ð fo r e xam ple , th at h e
o ppose s m ultic u ltu ra lis m o r a f® rm ativ e a ctio n. W e c an in fe r m ere ly th at h e
t h in ks th at
s o m e m ora l ju dgm en ts a re u niv ers a lly v alid . P erh ap s h e h as n o
d eta ile d lis t in m in d.
T his p oin t i s e sp ec ia lly r e le van t i n l a te r s e ctio ns ( e .g ., V I, p art K ). B ut i t's
w orth n otin g e arly , f o r t h is r e a so n: s o m e u niv ers a lis ts h ave h ig h ly c o nse rv a-
t iv e a g en das; th ey w an t to p ers u ad e u s n ot o nly o f u niv ers a li s m , b ut o f
s p eci® c m ora l ju dgm en ts th at d is c o ura ge lib era l c au se s. T his le ad s so m e
p eo ple to c o nfu se u niv ers a lis m w ith c o nse rv atis m . To p re ven t m is u nder-
s ta n din g, le t m e n ote th at I a m n ot w ritin g a s a c o nse rv ativ e, p arti c u la rly if
ª c o nse rv ativ eº im plie s a n tip ath y to c u ltu ra l p lu ra lis m .
E ig h th , c u ltu ra l re la tiv is m is o fte n d e® ned a s th e v ie w th at ª d iffe re n t
c u ltu re s are su bje ct to diffe re n t m ora l sta n dard sº or th at ªth e m ora l
s ta n dard s o f o ne c u ltu re d o n ot a p ply to o th ers .º B ut th e te rm s ª su bje ct to ,º
ª sta n dard s,º a n d ª a p ply to º a re le ft u nde® ned , m akin g th e d e® nitio ns in
w hic h th ey ® gu re u ncle ar. T he te rm in olo gy in S ec ti o n II h elp s re m ove th e
u ncla rity , tu rn in g th e p re vio usly m urk y exp re ssio ns in to h an dy w ays o f
s ta tin g th e re la tiv is t's k ey p oin ts . L et u s s a y th at c u ltu re
C is ª su bje ct to º a
m ora l sta n dard th at re q uir e s (p erm its , fo rb id s)
X, or th at th e sta n dard
ª a p plie s to º
C, ju st in case th e m ora l ju dgm en t ºX is o blig ato ry (r ig h t,
w ro ng)º i s v alid f o r
C. C ultu ra l r e la tiv is m c an n ow b e e xp re sse d a s t h e v ie w
t h at a lth ough a ll c u lt u re s a re s u bje ct to m ora l s ta n dard s, th ere is n o m ora l
s ta n dard th at a p plie s to a ll c u ltu re s.
m eta eth ic al, I a m d evia tin g fr o m th e v ie w s o f S u m ner, B en ed ic t, a n d H ers k o vits , w ho
i n te n d th eir th eo ry to b e n orm ativ e a s w ell a s m eta eth ic al. B ut I a m d oin g so in a
c h arita b le w ay, a w ay th at c u ts d ow n o n th e n um ber o f o bje ctio ns to w hic h th ey a re
o pen . In so fa r as Su m ner, B en ed ic t, an d H ers k o vits d efe n d a n orm ativ e th eo ry , th at
t h eo ry is a b ra n d o f a gen t re la tiv is m o r a p pra is e r re la tiv is m , a n d h en ce o pen to th e
o bje ctio ns in S ectio n IV . S ee g en era lly th e p assa ges c ite d in n ote s 1 4 a n d 2 7.
2 4. Not e very th in g I c all a ª v ers io n o f u niv ers a lis m º c o unts a s a f u ll- b lo w n n orm ativ e t h eo ry ,
t h ough m an y s u ch th eo rie s a re in dee d v ers io ns o f u niv ers a lis m .

2000 Cult u ra l R ela tiv is m 5 11
I V . A G EN T R ELA TIV IS M A N D A PPR A IS ER R ELA TIV IS M
T his se ctio n a d dre sse s a gen t re la tiv is m a n d a p pra is e r re la ti v is m .2
5
T h ese
v ie w s h ave a b su rd im plic atio ns, la rg e ly b ecau se th ey a sse rt a sk in tig h t
c o nnectio n b etw een m ora lity a n d c u ltu ra l n orm s.
I m agin e a c u ltu re in w hic h th e n orm s re q uir e th e ® rs t- b orn o f e ach
f a m ily to b e b urn ed a liv e a t th e a ge o f tw o. T his n orm d id n ot e vo lv e w illy -
n illy ; i t g re w u p , a n d r e m ain s c u rre n t, o w in g t o t h e b elie f t h at t h e f r e q uen cy
o f p la gu es c an b e d im in is h ed o nly b y b urn in g th e ® rs t- b orn o f e ach fa m ily .
T h is c u sto m c au se s g re at su ff e rin g, b ut th ose w ho p ra ctic e it se e it a s a
n ecessa ry e vil. N ow s u ppose t h at a m em ber o f t h is c u ltu re d evo te s h ers e lf t o
t h e stu dy o f d is e ase a n d d is c o vers th at b urn in g ® rs t- b orn c h ild re n d oes
n o th in g to r e d uce th e fr e q uen cy o f p la gu es. A cco rd in g to a gen t r e la tiv is m ,
t h is p ers o n sh ould d is m is s h er d is c o very a s
ir re le van t to th e m ora lity o f
b u rn in g ® rs t- b orn c h ild re n . T he rig h tn ess o f a d eed is d ete rm in ed b y th e
n orm s o f t h e a gen t's c u ltu re ; i t h as n oth in g t o d o w ith t h e o rig in o r r a tio nale
o f th ose n orm s. P erh ap s th e n orm s d eriv e fr o m e rro rs a b out th e c o nse -
q uen ces o f w hat th e n orm s p re sc rib e, b ut a cco rd in g to a gen t r e la tiv is m th is
m akes n o d iffe re n ce to th e r ig h tn ess o r w ro ngn ess o f v io la tin g th ose n orm s.
T his im plic a tio n o f a g en t r e la tiv is m is a b su rd . If a m ora l e valu atio n o f a
p ra ctic e s te m s, h ow ever in dir e ctly , fr o m e rro rs a b out th e c o nse q uen ce s o f
t h e p ra ctic e, th e c o rre ctio n o f th ose e rro rs is s u re ly re le van t to s u bse q u en t
t h in kin g a b out th e m ora lity o f th e p ra ctic e.
A s e co nd im plic atio n o f a gen t r e la tiv is m is th at w e c an r e so lv e e th ic al
d is p ute s b y ta k in g a p oll o r in s o m e o th er w ay u nco verin g th e lo cal n orm s.
T his i s l u dic ro us. I f w e ® nd t w o A la sk an s a rg u in g a b out w heth er i t w ould b e
r ig h t fo r th em to g o h errin g ® sh in g, it's u se le ss to te ll th em th at s u ch ® sh in g
a gre es w ith t h e n orm s o f t h eir c u ltu re . T hey a lr e ad y k n ow t h at; t h eir d is p ute
c o ncern s s o m eth in g e ls e .
A th ir d is su e is th at a gen t re la tiv is m c au se s p ro ble m s fo r th e n otio n o f
m ora l re fo rm . Im agin e a cu ltu re in w hic h th e norm s pre sc rib e ra cia l
d is c rim in atio n, a n d a m em ber o f th at c u ltu re tr ie s to r e fo rm it b y p eacefu lly
r e sis tin g th e o ppre ssiv e n orm s a n d in sp ir in g o th ers to d o li k ew is e . If a gen t
r e la tiv is m i s t r u e, t h is p ers o n i s n ot a r e fo rm er b ut a w ro ngd oer, f o r h is d eed s
c o n¯ic t w ith th e n orm s o f h is c u ltu re . T he g en era l p ro ble m is e a sy to s e e.
T he q uin te sse n ti a l m ora l r e fo rm er is o ne w ho fu rth ers th e c a u se o f m ora lity
2 5. Much o f th e m ate ria l in th is s e ctio n is ta ken , w ith s lig h t m odi® catio ns, fr o m tw o o f m y
p re vio us p ap ers : Jo hn J. T ille y,
C ultu ra l R ela tiv is m , U niv ers a lis m , a n d th e B urd en o f
P ro of
, 2 7 M IL L EN NIU M 2 75 (1 998); Jo hn J. T ille y, T h e P ro ble m fo r N orm ativ e C ult u ra l
R ela tiv is m
, 1 1 R ATIO J U RIS 2 72 ( 1 998) [ h ere in afte r T ille y, T he P ro ble m ]. T he s a m e g o es f o r
s o m e o th er p ortio ns o f th is e ssa y. F o r in sta n ce, m uch o f S ectio n V II, p art F , a p pears in
T ille y,
T he P ro ble m , s u pra , a t 2 81±8 2.

Vol. 2 2 512 HUM AN R IG HTS Q UARTER LY
b y ch alle n gin g p ra ctic es th at are d eep ly en tr e n ch ed in h is cu ltu re . B ut
a cco rd in g to a gen t re la tiv is m , to c h alle n ge s u ch p ra ctic es is n ot to fu rth er
t h e c au se o f m ora lity ; i t i s t o d o j u st t h e o pposite . T hus, p ara d oxic ally , t o b e
a m ora l re fo rm er is to fa il to b e a m ora l re fo rm er.
A pp ra is e r re la tiv is m is no m ore pla u sib le th an agen t re la tiv is m . It
i m plie s, fa ls e ly , th at C elia d oes n ot n ecessa rily c o ntr a d ic t h ers e lf if s h e s a ys
t o Y o ko , ªW hen y o u sa y th at a b ortio n is m ora lly rig h t, w hat y o u sa y is
p erfe ctly t r u e. N everth ele ss, a b ortio n i s n ot m ora lly r ig h t.º 2
6
P erh ap s C elia 's
c u ltu re d iffe rs fr o m Y o ko 's , a n d a b ortio n a gre es w ith th e n orm s o f Y o ko 's
c u ltu re b ut n ot w ith th ose o f C elia 's . If s o , to a ccep t a p pra is e r r e la tiv is m is
t o i m ply t h at C elia 's c o m men t t o Y o ko i s n ot o nly l o gic ally ¯ aw le ss b ut t r u e.
T he tr o u ble , o f c o urs e , is th at C elia 's c o m men t is n ot lo gic ally ¯ aw le ss; it is
p la in ly c o ntr a d ic to ry .
A se co nd im pla u sib le c o nse q uen ce o f a p pra is e r re la tiv is m is th at to
m ora lly c ritic iz e th e n orm s o f o ne's o w n c u ltu re is a lw ays rid ic u lo us. F o r
w hat is it to m ora lly c ritic iz e th ose n orm s if n ot to ju dge th at m an y o f th e
d eed s th at acco rd w ith th em are w ro ng? But acco rd in g to ap pra is e r
r e la tiv is m , to ju dge th ose d eed s a s w ro ng is to ju d ge fa ls e ly , g iv en th at th e
n orm s w ith w hic h th ey a cco rd a re th e n orm s o f o ne's o w n c u ltu re .
L et's c o nsid er a th ir d p ro ble m fo r a p pra is e r re la tiv is m . S u ppo se th e
n orm s o f A li's c u ltu re p erm it p oly gyn y, b ut t h e n orm s o f J u an 's c u ltu re f o rb id
i t. N ow s u ppose th at A li a n d Ju an e ach a sse rt, a t th e s a m e tim e a n d p la ce,
a n d in th e s a m e s itu atio n, ª p oly gyn y, w hen eve r a n d w here ver it o ccu rs , is
m ora lly r ig h t.º I f a p pra is e r r e la tiv is m i s t r u e, A li h as u tte re d a t r u th a n d J u an
h as u tte re d a fa ls e h ood, w hic h m ean s th ey h ave m ad e d iff e re n t a sse rtio ns
a b out p oly gyn y. T his is p uzzli n g, to s a y th e le ast.
A pp ra is e r r e la tiv is ts h ave a r e p ly , b ut i t's n ot e ffe ctiv e. T heir r e p ly i s t h at
ª m ora lly r ig h tº m ea n s ª in a cco rd w ith t h e n orm s o f m y c u ltu re .º 2
7
T he l a tte r
p hra se c o nta in s th e in dexic al expression ª m y c u ltu re º; s o th ere is n oth in g
p uzzlin g a b out th e c la im th at w hen Ju an a n d A li s a y ª p oly gyn y is m ora lly
r ig h tº th ey a re a sse rtin g d iffe re n t th in gs. E ach s p eaker is ta citly re fe rrin g to
h is o w n c u ltu re .
T he tr o uble w ith th is re p ly is th at it's p ate n tly fa ls e . If ª m ora lly rig h tº
w ere a s ta n d-in fo r ª in a cco rd w ith th e n orm s o f m y c u ltu re ,º a n yo ne w ho
m ora lly d en ounced a p ra ctic e a fte r g ra n tin g th at it a gre es w ith th e n orm s o f
h er c u ltu re w ould c o ntr a d ic t h ers e lf. If Jill s a id , ª R acis m a cco rd s w ith th e
n orm s o f m y c u ltu re , b ut i t 's n ot m ora lly r ig h t, º s h e w ould b e g u ilty n ot o nly
o f a fa ls e h ood b ut o f a c o ntr a d ic tio n. C le arly , th ough , Jill h as u tte re d n o
26. See JO NATH AN H ARRIS O N, O UR K NO W LE D GE O F R IG HT A N D W RO NG 2 30 (1 971). S ee a ls o id . a t
1 20±2 1.
2 7. Fo r v aria n ts o f th is v ie w , s e e S U M NER ,
s u pra n ote 7 , § 4 39; B en ed ic t, s u pra n ote 7 , a t 7 3.

2000 Cult u ra l R ela tiv is m 5 13
c o ntr a d ic tio n. T hus, ª m ora lly r ig h tº is n ot a s ta n d-in fo r ª in a cco rd w ith th e
n orm s o f m y c u ltu re .º
V . A RG UM EN TS F O R C U LT U RA L R ELA TIV IS M
C ultu ra l re la tiv is m (ª re la tiv is m º fo r sh ort) is n ot a s c le arly ¯ aw ed a s th e
p re vio us tw o vie w s. It im plie s th at m ora lity is so m eh ow a fu ncti o n o f
c u ltu re , b ut u nlik e a gen t r e la tiv is m a n d a p pra is e r r e la tiv is m , it s a ys n oth in g
a b out th e e xact n atu re o f th e fu nctio n o r th e a sp ects o f c u ltu re to w hic h
m ora lity i s t ie d . S o i ts p ro ponen ts c an a rg u e, w ith out o bvio us a b su rd ity , t h at
t h ey c an ¯ esh o u t th eir v ie w to a vo id p ro ble m s o f th e k in d ju st d is c u sse d .2
8
E ven so , th eir th esis re q uir e s su pport, a n d a s sh ow n in th e n ext fe w
s e ctio ns, it re ceiv es n o su pport fr o m th e re la tiv is ts ' a rg u m en ts .2
9
S o m e o f
t h ese a rg u m en ts a re te m ptin g, o th ers w arra n t th e c o m men t fa m ously m ad e
b y F.H . B ra d le y a b o ut a n o pponen t's th in kin g: ª I a m a sh am ed to h ave to
e xam in e su ch re aso nin g, b ut it is n ecessa ry to d o so , sin ce it is c o m mon
e n ough .º 3
0
A ll o f th e a rg u m en ts fa il. T heir a p peal ste m s fr o m c o nfu sio ns,
a n d o nce th e co nfu sio ns are cle are d u p Ð th at is , o nce w e m ake so m e
d is tin ctio nsÐ th e a rg u m en ts c o lla p se . W hat fo llo w s a re u nad orn ed v ers io ns
o f th e arg u m en ts . Fu rth er re ® nem en ts , as w ell as th e dis tin ctio n s th at
u nderm in e th e a rg u m en ts , c o m e la te r.
A . The T riv ia lit y A rg u m en t
A cco rd in g t o t h e ® rs t a rg u m en t, u niv ers a lis m i s t e m ptin g o nly i f w e f o cu s o n
j u d gm en ts t h at a re s o l a ckin g i n d e® nite c o nte n t t h at e ven i f t h ey w ere v alid
2 8. Fo r a h in t a s to h ow th ey m ig h t p ro ceed , s e e th e s e co nd s e n te n ce in n ote 1 1. F ra n kly , I
b elie ve th at a c lo se s c ru tin y o f c u ltu ra l re la tiv is m w ould u nco ver p ro ble m s o f th e k in d
d is c u sse d in S ectio n IV . I w ill n ot p urs u e th is b ecau se I w an t to fo cu s o n th e
arg u m en ts
fo r c u ltu ra l re la tiv is m .
2 9. Most o f t h ese a rg u m en ts f a ll i n to t h re e c ate go rie s. T h ose i n t h e ® rs t c ate go ry a im t o s h ow
t h at r e la tiv is m is c o n® rm ed b y th e s tu dy o f d iv ers e c u ltu re s. T hose in th e s e co nd a im to
r e veal d esir a b le a sp ects o f r e la tiv is m o r u ndesir a b le a sp ects o f u niv ers a lis m . T hose i n t h e
t h ir d a im to ill u str a te b y e xam ple th at w hat is w ro ng in o ne c u ltu re is n ot w ro ng in th e
n ext, o r th at w id ely d iffe re n t c u sto m s c an b e e q ually r ig h t. P re su m ab ly , w e a re to in fe r
f r o m th e e xam ple s th at re la tiv is m is tr u e, n o d oubt b ecau se it so e asily e xp la in s th e
i llu str a te d p oin t. A rg u m en ts o f a ll th re e ty p es a p pear in th e c la ssic te xts o f re la tiv is m ,
t h ough o fte n in o nly em bry o nic fo rm . Fo r exam ple , w hat I la te r d ub th e ªn om ad
a rg u m en tº a n d th e ªe th n ocen tr is m a rg u m en tº a re su ggeste d , re sp ectiv ely , b y S U M NER ,
su pra n ote 7 , § 3 33; a n d H ER SK O VIT S, s u pra n ote 6 , a t 5 0. T he ª to le ra n ce a rg u m en tº is
s u ggeste d in B EN ED IC T,
s u pra n ote 6 , a t 3 7, 2 78; a n d in H ER SK O VIT S, s u pra n o te 7 , a t 7 6 , 7 8 .
F o r th e ªre se arc h arg u m en t,º se e H ER SK O VIT S,
s u pra n ote 6 , at 1 4 ±1 5, 3 9, 5 1, 1 01;
H ER SK O VIT S,
s u pra n ote 7 , a t 7 8.
3 0. F.H . B RA D LEY , E TH IC A L S TU D IE S 1 15 n .2 (2 d e d . 1 927).

Vol. 2 2 514 HUM AN R IG HTS Q UARTER LY
f o r e ve ry o ne, n oth in g im porta n t w ould fo llo w . W hen o ffe rin g e xam ple s o f
u niv ers a lly v alid m ora l ju dgm en ts , u niv ers a lis ts w is e ly a vo id th e ju dgm en t,
ª k in dness is r ig h t,
p erio d .º T hey o ffe r ª k in dness is p rim a fa cie r ig h t,º w hic h
i n deed h as t h e l o ok o f a u niv ers a lly v alid t r u th . H ow ever, t h e j u dgm en t t e ll s
u s m ere ly th at
b ein g a n a ct o f k in dness is a r ig h t- m akin g fe atu re o f a n y a ct.
H ow d o w e k n ow w hen th at fe atu re is o utw eig h ed b y w ro ng-m akin g o nes,
r e su ltin g i n a n a ct o f k in dness t h at i s u ltim ate ly w ro ng r a th er t h an r ig h t? T he
j u dgm en t d oes n ot p ro vid e a n a n sw er; it le aves e ach c u ltu re to s o lv e th e
p ro ble m its o w n w ay. N or d oes th e ju dgm en t c la rify ªk in dness;º h en ce,
d iffe re n t cu ltu re s w ill in te rp re t th e te rm diffe re n tly . Thus, even if th e
j u dgm en t is u niv ers a lly v alid , n oth in g im porta n t fo llo w s.
B . The P oly gyn y A rg u m en t
T he n ext a rg u m en t b egin s w ith fa cts a b out d iffe re n t c u ltu re s. S o m e c u ltu re s
p ra ctic e p oly gyn y, o th ers m onogam y, a n d still o th ers p oly an dry . In so m e
c u ltu re s m odesty o f d re ss is th e n orm ; in o th ers it is n ot. A ls o , a lth ough
p eyo te is o utla w ed in m an y c u ltu re s, it h as a tr a d itio nal p la ce in o th ers .
S u ch e xam ple s a re n um ero us. W hat th ey sh are is a re fe re n ce to c u sto m s
t h at, n o m atte r h ow o dd th ey a p pear to s o m e, a re s e en a s n atu ra l b y th ose
w ho p ra ctic e th em . C an a n yo ne sa y th at o nly so m e o f th ese c u sto m s a re
r ig h t, th at a ll o f th e o th ers a re w ro ng? C an a n yo ne re aso nab ly th in k th at
f r o m th is v ast a rra y o f a ccep te d c u sto m s, o nly a fe w w arra n t th e la b el
ª m ora l, º th e o th ers b ein g im mora l o r e vil? S u re ly n ot; h en ce w e sh ould
g ra n t th at rig h t a n d w ro ng v ary w ith c u ltu re .
C . The H um an S acri® ce A rg u m en t
T he th ir d a rg u m en t r e se m ble s th e s e co nd, b ut c o ncern s a m ore ª a p pallin gº
c u sto m . T he c u sto m is th at o f b eh ead in g p eo ple , o fte n d ozen s a t a tim e, a s
a fo rm o f r e lig io us s a c ri® ce.3
1
In o ur c u ltu re th is d eed w ould b e w ro ng, b ut
j u st im agin e a n is o la te d c u ltu re th at h as p ra ctic ed it fo r a ges a n d s e es it a s
m an date d fr o m hea ven .3
2
The peo ple of th is cu ltu re have never had
o ccasio n t o q uestio n t h e p ra ctic e; a ls o , t h ey s e e i t a s t h eir o nly w ay t o a vo id
d iv in e p u nis h m en t.
3 1. Oth er c u sto m s c o uld h ave b een c h ose n h ere , fo r e xam ple , th e D in ka's ritu al b uria l o f
s p ear-m aste rs o r th e In uit' s c u sto m o f fe m ale in fa n tic id e.
3 2. Th e te rm ª o ur c u ltu re º (a n d a n y te rm a kin to it), b oth h ere a n d e ls e w here in th is a rtic le ,
n eed n ot r e fe r t o t h e
au th or's c u ltu re . I t c an b e i n te rp re te d t o r e fe r t o m ost a n y c u ltu re t h e
r e ad er c h oose s, t h ough i n a f e w c ase s t h is m ay r e q uir e m in or a d ju stm en ts i n t h e r e le van t
p assa ge o r a rg u m en t.

2000 Cult u ra l R ela tiv is m 5 15
N ow im agin e so m eo ne fr o m o ur c u lt u re a rriv in g o n th eir sh ore s a n d
m ora lly c o ndem nin g t h em f o r t h eir d eed s. S u re ly t h is i s r id ic u lo us. I t w ould
n ot b e rid ic u lo us, h ow ev er, if a im ed a t p erp etr a to rs o f su ch d eed s in o ur
o w n c u ltu re . C le arly , g o od a n d e vil a re c u ltu ra lly v aria b le .
D .The N om ad A rg u m en t
T he fo urth a rg u m en t c o ncern s a h om ic id al c u sto m th at d eriv es, n ot fr o m
r e lig io us b elie fs , b u t f r o m l iv in g c o nditio ns. C onsid er a n om ad ic c u ltu re t h at
m erc ifu lly k ills t h ose w ho a re t o o o ld a n d f e eb le t o w alk l o ng d is ta n ces. T he
n om ad s c an not c arry t h ese p eo ple a lo ng w ith t h e g ro up, y et m ig ra tio n f r o m
o ne fo od so urc e to a n oth er is re q uir e d fo r th e g ro up's su rv iv al. T he o nly
a lte rn ativ e to k illin g th e o ld a n d w eak is to a b an don th em to a s lo w d eath
b y sta rv atio n a n d e xp osu re . F o r th is re aso n , th e c u sto m is to k ill th ese
p eo ple in a pain le ss w ay. Those w ho re ce iv e th is tr e atm en t se e it as
k in dness; th ey w ould fe e l w ro nged if tr e ate d d iffe re n tly .
C an a n yo ne p la u sib ly s a y th at th e c u sto m d esc rib ed h ere is im mora l?
S u re ly n ot, y et t h e c u sto m d esc rib ed , t h at o f k il li n g t h e o ld a n d w eak, w ould
b e w ro ng if p ra ctic ed b y u s. O bvio usly , r ig h t a n d w ro ng v a ry w ith c u ltu re .
E . The R ese a rc h A rg u m en t
W e n ow c o m e to th e m ost c o m mon a rg u m en t fo r re la tiv is m . To sta te it
s im ply , r e se arc h s h ow s t h at t h e m ora lity o f o ne c u ltu re d iff e rs r a d ic ally f r o m
t h at o f th e n ext. T h e w оrdª ra d ic ally º is c ru cia l. T he p oin t is th at m ora li tie s
d iffe r
fu ndam en ta lly , n ot m ere ly in w hat th ey p re sc rib e a b out th is o r th at
p ra ctic e. This has been docu m en te d at le n gth th ro ugh th e w ork of
a n th ro polo gis ts a n d sh ow s th at w hat is rig h t fo r o ne c u ltu re is w ro ng fo r
o th ers .
F . The T ru e-fo r-T hem A rg u m en t
T he s ix th a rg u m en t r e se m ble s th e ® fth , b ut is w orth c o nsid erin g s e p ara te ly .
A cco rd in g to th e tr u e-fo